Key Logistics Activities and Technologies Related to Logistics

Introduction Logistics play a major role in our life. Most of the people might not be aware of the importance of logistics until there are problems appear. Under the pressure of arising competitive environment, most of the business entities are initiated to focus on the development of logistics. Logistics can be said as the transfers of goods and services from the point of origin to the point of consumptions effectively and efficiently in order to meet the requirement of the customers (Logistics World, n. d. ). Logistics include the distributions of raw materials, in-progress inventories, finished goods and other related information.Successful logistics enable the business entities to deliver the goods and services consistently to the correct customers on time. Based on the question given, I do not agree with the statements saying that ‘logistics is nothing more than getting goods from one point to another’. Logistics covered much more aspects and involved a lot other ac tivities other than what the statement above mentioned. There are still many different types of activities in logistics such as customer services, inventory management, material handling and packaging, order processing, procurement and et cetera.On the other hand, in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of logistics management, a variety of solutions and technology advancements had been introduced to the business market. The literature below will review the other activities and the technologies improvement for logistics (Stock & Lambert, 2000). Key logistics activities One of the activities involved in logistics is the customer service. Stock & Lambert (2000) stated customer service is â€Å"a customer oriented philosophy that integrates and manages all elements of the customer interface within a predetermined optimum cost-service mix† (p. 4). To design a logistics system, companies should always start with setting a strong and clear customer service objective. W ithout having a common objective for everyone in the company, decisions about order strategies, production, transportation, inventory investment, and warehousing will not be consistent and effective. Customer service objective acts as guidelines for the logistics managers in setting up targets of their performance as well as making decisions when they encounter problems in the future.Logistics play an important role in ensuring high customer satisfaction. Getting the right product to the customers under the right condition, at the right place and the right time, as well as with the right cost are the main criteria for achieving a high customer satisfaction (Stock & Lambert, 2000). For example, Kraft Foods Incorporate make sure their customers get the right products they ordered at the right time and right place regardless of whether the customers are at the hypermarket in France or a cafe in Sweden (Kraft Foods, n. . ). Other that the five rights, excellent customer services also ne ed to make sure the order and return processes are convenient to customers. The company needs to provide accurate and consistent information to customer by selling the products and services that are worth for the price. Lastly, they need to deliver the products and services on time. By providing the best customer service and fulfilling all the five ‘right’ criteria, company will be able create higher customer satisfaction and therefore gaining competitive advantage.When customers are satisfied with the products and services provided by company, they will most likely become the loyal customers and support the products and services from the company in long term scenario (Stock & Lambert, 2000). Besides that, Banning & Gibson indicate loyal customers can act as one of the advertising medium by conveying positive messages and comments to their friends and family (Banning & Gibson, n. d. ). In that way, the market share and profitability of the company will increase and at t he same time the total costs of logistics also will reduce.Other than that, inventory management is also one of the activities under logistics. In the industries now, most of the company will hold inventory to achieve economies of scale. Company usually purchase and transport all inventory at once to reduce their cost. This is because purchase in a huge amount will reduce the cost of per-unit price while having a full truckload shipment will reduce the cost of per-unit transportation. Then, company will also choose to have a greater plant capacity so that the per-unit manufacturing cost will be lower.However, holding inventory contributed a significant amount of expenses to the companies due to high storage costs, capital cost, service cost, risk cost, and some of the product can be obsolescence in short time. Therefore, the company might try to minimize the expenses by reducing the amount of inventory without interrupting the flow of the products to the customers. Since there is co nflict between economies of scale with handling and warehousing costs, companies need to find a suitable way to balance of these two criteria.For instances, company can use Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) to determine the best amount of inventory to order (Stock & Lambert, 2000). The objective of every inventory planner is controlling the inventory they hold to meet the exact amount of customers’ demand. This is because either excess or shortage of inventory will bring up significant costs to the business affecting the operation and opportunities of the business (Management Study Guide, n. d. ). In addition to that, raw materials and parts, work-in-process, and finished goods inventories are required to be considered.These inventories require sufficient physical space, capital, and personnel time to maintain and pile up. A successful inventory management will determine the amount of inventory necessitate to meet the demand of customers and at the same time consider the costs ne eded to put in the logistic activities. Besides that, excellent inventory management can increase the cash flow and return on investment. Nowadays, many companies start paying more attention to inventory control especially on the products that can become obsolete in short time, such as high-tech merchandise, automobiles, and seasonal goods (Stock & Lambert, 2000).For example, in April 2005, Mazda Motor Corporation comes out with its Mazda Materials Management Planning (M3P) which is an inventory control system. The system of M3P improved inventory levels, enhanced the speed of supply, and ensure the Mazda’s retail and service operations are smooth all the time. Other than that, M3P also brings benefits to customer such as providing better customer service and shorten the length of responding time (Mazda, 2005). Furthermore, logistics need to take care of the material handling and packaging in the company.Material handling takes part in managing the flow of raw materials, in-p rocess inventory, and finished goods inside a warehouse. The costs of firm will increase for each and every item handled. Since handling the item will not increase the value of a product but incur more costs to the company, company should always try to reduce the number of material handling wherever possible by decreasing the inventory. Then, materials handling design the plan to reduce distance travelled of the materials and minimize the work-in-process of the materials.Other than that, material handling makes sure the materials can flow through the process consistently without having troubles. Lastly, material handling will find ways to decrease the possibility of getting losses from breakage, waste and spoilage (Stock & Lambert, 2000). On the other hand, packaging is the process of getting the container and wrapper to hold the products (Reference for Business, n. d. ). In logistics aspect, packaging of the products can act as a barrier to prevent the products from getting damaged during transportation of the products or storing the products.Furthermore, product with appropriate packaging is easier to be move or store. However, packaging will add up space and weights subsequently incur more cost. Thus, many people in this area always spend time in thinking ways to reduce to space and weight of the products after packaging (Stock & Lambert, 2000). A successful packaging strategy can help a firm to strengthen its competitive advantages such as optimizes service, cost, and become more convenient (Learn Marketing, n. d. ). When a product go international, the packaging will becomes more important to a company.The products are required to travel more distances and need more physically handling if compare to domestic packaging (Stock & Lambert, 2000). Additionally, order processing is taken to account when discussing about the activities of logistics. Order processing is the  process or work flow that starts with the receipt order from customer, followed by veri fying the order status and communicate about the order with customer, while lastly making order and ensure the availability of the products to satisfy customer’s needs (Jetef, n. d. ). Order processing can divide into three groups.The first group is the operational elements, including order shipping, setting preparation, order entry, scheduling, and invoicing. Next group is the communication elements, for example, order status inquiries, order modification, error correction, tracing and expediting, and product information requests. The last group of order processing is the credit and collection elements, such as accounts receivable processing and credit checking. The quality and speed of the information flow provided by company during the order processing to their customers can affect the cost and the efficiency of the entire operation.If the information flows are slow and erratic, the company will not only suffer from decreasing in customer, but also increasing transportatio n, inventory, and warehousing costs. The faster and more accurate the service the company can provide, the greater the customers satisfaction obtained by the company. Information system today can help in order processing by making the time of order processing to become shorter between order placement and product shipment. For example, customers’ order can be placed and sent to the company’s computer directly by using electronic data interchange (EDI).Decision support system (DSS), quick response (QR), efficient consumer response (ECR) and et cetera are other information system that can help the company to improve order processing and achieve customer service goals at competitive cost. Information system not only helps company to improve its speed, quality, and accuracy of order processing, but also help company to save some logistics expenses like transportation and inventory while boosting up the sales (Stock & Lambert, 2000). Finally, the last activity of logistics t hat this literature will discuss is procurement.Procurement is the effective purchasing of goods and services to make sure the manufacturing and logistics processes of the firm are run in effectiveness. In order for the company to ensure them to obtain the supplies that can meet their requirement in terms of time, location, quality and quantity, the company is required to procure suitable goods and services (Procurement, n. d. ). The procurement function includes supplier selection, determination of the form of material to acquire, purchasing time, pricing and quality control.According to WiseGEEK, while â€Å"procurement logistics are the processes used in the delivery, receipt, movement and storage of materials purchased for a business or organization†. The goals of procurement are to minimize the costs at the same time increase the service provided (WiseGEEK, n. d. ). In the purchasing process, the most important task is to choose the best supplier from all the potential v endors. The purchasing process is complicated. Decision makers and decision influencers from decision making unit (DMU) need to go through twelve steps of buying process when purchasing items from supplier.If company is doing routine buying, then some of the steps can be skipped (Stock & Lambert, 2000). When making purchasing decision, DMU also need to consider the number of orders, lead time requirements, delivery expectations, product reliability, drop-off locations and others. All of the final price of products should be including transportation and storage cost. Company can usually try to minimize these hidden costs by requesting just-in-time delivery from supplier (WiseGEEK, n. d. ). In short, paying enough attention o the management of purchasing cost as well as the evaluation of purchasing performance can lead to increasing profitability of a company (Stock & Lambert, 2000). Technologies related to logistics Due to an increase in attention paid on the logistics, experts start ed to develop more and more ways to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of logistics through acquiring the technologies. One of the most significant improvements made by technology is the Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) (Stock & Lambert, 2000).EDI is the exchange of business messages and information through computers of the trading partners via communication cables with standard protocols and standard data formats (EasyLink Services, n. d. ). For example, EDI can be used when there are purchase orders. Organizations are able to make a purchase order with their suppliers through computers. EDI is more convenient for the organizations as the usage of internet are more and more common (Stock & Lambert, 2000). According to GXS, there are a few advantages of using EDI in logistics.EDI will transform most of the paper works into electronic base. Many of the procedures can be done automatically and quickly through the advancement of technologies. Therefore, the time taken to complet e the process will be reduces significantly. It promotes the efficiency of the organizations which leads to the increase of productivity. Besides, EDI replaced human to key in the data of the organizations routinely. When there are less human works, the probability of getting error in data entry will be reduced drastically or even eradicated.Furthermore, the data transferred among the computers are using the standard and same formats. This ensures that the data transferred to the receivers will be analyzed accurately and correctly. Thus, the communication error between the sender and receiver is diminished. The diminished in error will subsequently raise the efficiency of the organizations as well since there are less likely for the organizations to repeat the procedures and make corrections on the mistakes (GXS, n. d. ).In addition to that, EDI can also increase the accuracy of inventory and reduce the cycle time and thus reduce the cost of inventory. In such, EDI increases the pro ductivity while reducing the costs as well. With the development of the internet, EDI is free if it flows through the internet instead of VAN. Many major companies such as NASA Goddard, UNISYS and AVEX Electronics are now using EDI supported by the internet (Stock & Lambert, 2000). Bar coding is another technology advancement that contributes to the improvement of logistics.Bar coding are commonly use in our daily life such as the products in supermarket. Bar codes are a row of parallel bars distanced with a number of gaps with different width. They able to convey different messages in the form of letters, numbers and special characters based on the array of gaps between the bars. A beam of light is used to interpret the information of the bar codes and sent it to the computers. These codes are used mainly on tracking and security purposes. They are important in decreasing the probability of errors compare to key in the information manually.Statistics showed that the bar codes error rate is one out of hundred thousand while the error rate of manually key in data is one out of thirty. It had clearly showed that the error rate had been improved significantly (Stock & Lambert, 2000). In relation to the bar codes, as said by Lyne, Quick Respond (QR) codes from Japan are also introduced to the society. QR codes is a two dimensional barcodes that normally stored with specific links contained with extra information. QR codes are named because it can be scanned quickly even with the smart phones that installed with QR codes reader.It is convenient for the consumers to obtain certain information about the products since it does not required a specific code reader device just like that bar code reader. Furthermore, QR codes able to store more variety of information instead of letters, numbers and special characters only such as url links and geo coordinates. QR codes are enable the customer to know about the product details, contact details, coupons or event a link to Y ouTube video for further information (Lyne, 2009).For instance, the product code, manufacturing history, expiration date and other data can be encoded in the QR codes. Coca-cola had used this feature in their logistics management at Chukyo. They are able to check for the quality and track the products easily using QR codes (Sundaramurthy, n. d. ). Management Information System (MIS) is also one of the technologies used to improve logistics. A successful MIS is able to provide sufficient and relevant information for the managers in order to make an effective decision.There are five areas that MIS need to fulfil which are the timing, accuracy, relevance, completeness and consistency (Office of the Comptroller of Currency, 1995). MIS should be able to provide the latest and current information using the shortest time. The information collected should be checked buy auditors as well as ensuring the information is useful. Unwanted information need to be filtered and the relevant informat ion need to be summarize completely. Lastly, the method in processing and compiling the information need to be consistent so that the manager will not misunderstand the information.MIS is important in logistics for collecting, analyzing and interpreting the information from various aspects such as the suppliers, resources, transportation and so on. MIS can make sure there is no interruption n the supply chain. A well managed MIS allowed the organizations to control every detail in different region in a faster time (Stock & Lambert, 2000). In real example, World Health Organization need to have an uninterrupted supply of drugs through the supply chain to ensure the increasing number of HIV/AIDS patients are able to get their treatment (World Health Organization, n. d. ).

Aids: the Silent Killer

AIDS: The Silent Killer Introduction AIDS is one of the most commonly known sexually transmitted diseases. The last stages of HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, are what we know as AIDS, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. HIV is similar to other viruses like the flu or common cold except the human immune system cannot destroy the virus. The virus can hide in the cells of the body for long periods of time and attacks important parts of the immune system like T-cells or CD4 cells.Once HIV destroys a lot of CD4 cells the human body can no longer fight against infections and diseases. AIDS is diagnosed when the body cannot fight against disease and the patient has one or more specific opportunistic infections (OIs), different types of cancer, or an extremely low number of CD4 cells. HIV lives in specific human blood and other body fluids. If those fluids enter the human blood stream then it is infected with HIV. Blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, breast milk, vaginal fluids, and rectal mu cous contain high levels of HIV.Waste products like feces, nasal fluid, saliva, sweat, tears, urine, and vomit contain HIV but not enough to infect someone; unless blood is mixed with the waste products and there is direct contact with them. People can get HIV from anyone who is HIV positive or infected with the disease. 7 HIV affects most people from having sexual intercourse with an HIV positive person, sharing a needle with someone who is infected, drinking the breast milk of a HIV positive woman, or being birthed from a HIV positive woman. People used to get AIDs from injected blood donors, but now donated blood is screened for HIV. 9 Oral sex is another way people can get AIDs, but only if there are open sores in your mouth or bleeding gums. 10 Discussion HIV/AIDs did not come about until the early 1980’s. The United States was the first country to notice this different virus among homosexual males. 11 No one had any clue what this new virus was, it must have been terrif ying attempting to treat an unknown disease considering you would not know how to protect yourself from the disease as well.In 1982, scientists discovered that AIDS remains a sexually transmitted disease. Not until 1984 did researchers conclude that AIDS is caused by HIV. 12 Although HIV has become somewhat maintainable, during the early years of the AIDs virus a vaccine seemed impossible, and with almost 30 years since the virus first budded its head there is still no vaccine. 13 As I said earlier HIV is a virus, specifically a retrovirus. Retroviruses contain RNA for their genetic material, but once someone is infected the virus uses an enzyme called transcriptase to turn RNA into DNA. 4 The virus then continues to replicate itself.15 People usually do not realize they have HIV because it is a lentivirus and there is usually a long period of time between the time of infection and the sign of serious symptoms. 16 Animals have similar versions of HIV that have made good but not perf ect models of how HIV works. 17 HIV replicates at impeccable speeds creating billions of new HIV viruses to infect the body every day. 18 The virus is able to mutate and evolve which makes it that much harder to defeat the virus. 9 The CD4 cells and T cells are destroyed daily by HIV which eventually causes the immune system to regenerate or defeat infections. 20 HIV is able to hide in the cytoplasm of the cell that it infects or makes its way into the cell’s chromosomes. 21 The virus does this to hide from the immune system so it will not be destroyed. 22 Some drugs have been found to suppress HIV but cannot get rid of it because of HIV’s ability to hide in other cells. 23 Conclusion There is currently no cure for AIDS, but there are treatments available to prolong an HIV/AIDS patient from becoming extremely ill.The main treatment for HIV or AIDS is the antiretroviral drug. 24 This drug needs to be taken daily in order to keep HIV levels low in the body. 25 Patients u sually use combination therapy, taking two or more antiretroviral drugs, so that HIV does not become immune to the drug. 26 AIDS is a very deadly syndrome derived from an evil virus. HIV/AIDS is a powerful silent killer. Everyone should be tested for HIV because that is the only way to find out if you have the virus.

American Civilization before 1877 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American Civilization before 1877 - Essay Example He was so proper that a commentator even kidded that â€Å"Washington was born with his clothes on and his hair powdered, and made a stately bow on his first appearance in the world†. He is always dignified and looked like a leader. Socially he also like to dance and ride horses which fits in the character of a gentleman of his time. He was not without criticism though. He was criticized as being unintellectual. Adams even mocked him that he was too illiterate, unlearned, unread for his station and reputation is equally past dispute. Thomas Jefferson Jefferson qualified and fitted of being a gentleman because he embodied America’s democratic ideals and democratic hopes. Lincold even said of Jefferson that â€Å"the principles of are the definitions and axioms of free society†. He was criticized by Leonard Levy though in his work Lincoln are the definitions and axioms of free society†. According to him, Jefferson was inconsistent and hypocrite. He ripped off Jefferson’s mantle of libertarianism to expose his darker sige: his passion for partisan persecution, his lack of concern for basic civil liberties, and his self-righteousness that became at times out- and- out ruthlessness. Far from being the skeptical enlightened intellectual, allowing all ideas their free play, Jefferson was portrayed by Levy and other historians as something of an ideologue, a doctrinaire thinker eager to fill the young with his political orthodoxy while censoring all those books he did not like. He did not have an open or a questioning mind after all. Alexander Hamilton Alexander Hamilton was the great American capitalist. He singlehandedly created modern American capitalism. He is the founder big state fnancial capitalism. In the 1890 he was He was called a â€Å"sound thinker, the constructive statesman†who sponsored a â€Å"vigourous, positive, constructive national policy... that implied a faith in the powers of an efficient government to ad vance natioanl interest.† Robert Warslow described him in 1931 that for a man, he was not noble, as a politician, hewas not an eminent success; as a statesman, apart from financial measures, he was not superior. But as businessman, not in all this period was any man to match him. And this characteristic fitted Hamilton as one of finest gentleman of his time as he embodied the American ideals of capitalism that made it an economic superpower that it is now. 2. a In Revolutionary Characters, Gordon Wood explains "what made the founders different." How do the public lives and attitudes of two of the men he discusses prove his point? Base your answer on the Introduction, the Epilogue, and at least two other chapter America unlike its counterparts in Europe and elsewhere in the world, was created by a sense of belief and not by common ethnicity. It also prides being a gentleman not by birth but by merit. Being a gentleman however connotes different meaning with the forefathers of A merica. America’s founding fathers were different because for them being a gentleman assumed a moral meaning that was more important than its social significance. Unlike their counterpart in Europe where pure monarchists still define gentility exclusively by the pride of their families, the size of their estates, the

1.Critically examine the challenges facing the NHS in employing the Essay

1.Critically examine the challenges facing the NHS in employing the use of computer-based systems in the management of patients care since the introduction of the National Programme for IT in 2005 - Essay Example e National Audit Office (2006) the establishment of the specific Programme was decided mostly because of the following reasons: a) the high volume of cases handled by hospitals and other care centers; it has been estimated that every week about 6 million people are likely to visit their GP (National Audit Office, 2006, p.9), b) the increase of security in regard to the storage and management of personal data, c) the high cost in prescribing in healthcare settings across Britain. Despite the above advantages, the NHS IT Programme of 2005 has faced a series of challenges – an indication of the failures related to its design/ monitoring. These challenges are analytically presented in the next section; it is concluded that the use of the NHS IT Programme has helped towards the increase of quality of healthcare services across Britain; however, appropriate initiatives should be developed so that the above system to fully perform. Such schemes of action would be the training of user s, the introduction of simpler guidelines and the continuous review of the system’s needs. Through the introduction of information systems in the management of activities across NHS the performance of the specific organization has been improved. The advanced information technologies available to health practitioners have helped to the increase of quality of the services provided to the patients but also to the establishment of services which were not available previously – for instance the services available in the context of the Geographical Information System (GIS) which is incorporated in the IT systems used in NHS’ healthcare settings (Higgs et al., 2001, p.247). However, the performance of information systems in NHS has faced severe delays mostly because of the failures developed across the organization in regard to the management of the specific systems. The update of existing NHS IT systems framework in 2005 has been considered as a necessary solution in order for the above

Quantitative Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Quantitative Analysis - Research Paper Example of taste and preferences, time of the year, and economic changes among other factors and an understanding of occurrence of such seasonal factors and their effects on equilibrium price is necessary and is recommended. Times series analysis allows for identification of effects of trend and seasonality, that can then be separated in forecasting optimal price and is therefore necessary for effective planning and goal setting. Forecasted seasonality and trend informs on expected changes in optimal prices that can be used to retain customers and even attract new customers for a competitive market share. The analysis, based on an organization’s data or that of the industry’s average and the following equation, can forecast daily or weekly prices for unit commodities that the restaurant could sell. Comparative analysis of cost and revenues is another recommended quantitative best practice for the business. Two approaches inform profit maximization and their understanding and use in the business will ensure optimal profitability. The difference between total cost and total revenue defines obtained profits and can be used to define profitability (Korrapati, 2014). Understanding the maximum level profit that an entity can achieve is more important for efficient resource utilization and this identifies the concept of marginal returns. Profit is maximized when marginal cost equals marginal revenues. Data analysis on difference between unit cost of a product and its unit price is therefore necessary for understanding the point of equality. This, however, relies on other practices such as optimal pricing that could use time series and cost accounting into determination of unit cost. The following mathematical equation expresses to optimization point. The mathematical approach can also inform decisions on optimal prices given cost and production capacity. A restaurant has such capacity limitation to space and number of seats in the restaurant and with a known optimal number

Engineering ethics Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Engineering ethics - Case Study Example Within any given integrated work place, a coherent code of conduct is used to manage behavioral conduct of employees. This code of conduct outlines the principles and values required of every employee when conducting any duty within a  social setting. Apart from laws and the code of conduct, ethics determine the professional behavioral pattern demonstrated by employees. Ethics relate to an individual’s philosophical principles and beliefs. Ethical practices involve adoption of elements like honesty, loyalty, commitment and avoidance of conflict of interest in professional duties. In any professional training, an individual is informed of the required ethical elements which all employees working in a certain professional accord should follow. At this juncture, we will begin by appraising the code of conduct that defines ethical principles required of engineers. Engineering, which is mostly concerned with the welfare of the society, should depict high levels of ethics in its a pplication. Therefore, engineers should display ethical conduct in every activity pertaining to their profession. With respect to the underlying case study, Giffels faces a dilemma situation where he is required to make an ethical decision within the line of duty. Before we begin evaluating Giffels’ case from a theoretical perspective, it is appropriate that we acknowledge some of the ethical requirements of every engineer in the field. From the NSPE, which outline the code of ethics for engineers, engineers have a professional obligation of informing his/her clients when they belief that a certain project has some defects. In addition, engineers should not engage in activities that serve to advance their professional status by untruthfully presenting information about projects. According to the rule of practice, engineers should prioritize safety, health and the general welfare of the public in all professional duties. When charged with a responsibility of approving a projec t, engineers should only approve projects that conform to the applicable engineering standards. Moreover, every engineer should carry out professional assignments with the highest standards of honesty and integrity. At this juncture, acknowledgement of these ethical principles facilitates appraisal of Giffels’ case in an objective manner. Relevant theories concerned with ethical standards will prove helpful in understanding professional ethics from a theoretical perspective. The underlying case concerns an engineer faced with a situation requiring an ethical decision making process. Giffels has a professional duty of installing equipment in a government facility. However, this facility does not meet the required engineering standards in its constructions. Giffels notice that the responsible designer did not consider the issue of safety in terms of fire and escape routes in the facility. In addition, the designer did not submit details on how Giffels should install the require d equipments with respect to the issues of safety. Giffels evaluated this situation from an ethical perspective. Although his duty was to install the equipments, he considered the aspect of public safety in the project. This made Giffels consider approaching the concerned parties for assistance. The designer rejected his claim saying that Giffels duty is to complete the

Social policy Case Study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Social policy Case Study - Assignment Example They can seek help from programmes or organisations such as Childline, Sane, Supporting people, Refugee council, The Children's society, Housemate, NCH, De Paul Trust, Crisis, Scottish Churches Housing Action etc.that are specifically dealing with problems like those of Jake's. These social work organisations do help people as much as possible but after a point, they find difficult to move further as different policies prove to be a setback to their efforts of improvement. The current white paper that propagates the idea of 'valuing people' is the first of its kind since the last 30 years. So it is quiet evident that not much has been done for the improvement of this sector in the past. According to Department of Health the programs for improving services are based on the key principals; civil rights, independence, choice and inclusion. It stated, "Valuing people takes a life-long approach beginning with an integrated approach to services for disabled children and their families and then providing new opportunities for a full and purposeful adult life." (para.3) From this it appears that all are welcome for support and assistance but if we study the white paper in detail some other facts come into light. The National Austic Society has rightly pointed after observing the definition of 'Valuing people' that "the definition goes on to say that IQ below 70 is not in itself a sufficient reason for deciding whether an individual requires support. An assess ment of social functioning and communication skills should also be taken into account when determining need." (para.7) So the discussed white paper brings both; a ray of hope and a situation of dilemma to people like Jake. All this affects the social work professionals' attitudes too. The Independent Living Bill of disabled persons states that the disabled people are equal in freedom, choice, dignity and control to others and have the right to assistance and support. This automatically implies that Jake and his family can expect an independent and decent life for him. The current white paper also has set an objective to provide choices of housing to people like Jake so that they can live independently. According to Twigg, NHS and the Community Care Act 1990, "established the current arrangements for community care, introducing care management and according primary responsibility for community care-lead agency status-to social services." (1999, p.370). Sadly the housing policy is not aimed at those who need it badly. The housing policy that greatly follows the key legislation like the 1972 Housing Finance Act, 1977 Homeless Act, and 1996 Housing Act etc. is not completely a social policy. Of late it has taken a social character, which does not enable the social workers to fully utilize it for the betterment of the needy. Still the social policy is an indicator for the social workers to decide upon their plan of action. (Pahl, 1999, p.173) stated: 'social policy is now beginning to recognize the contribution which carers make to individualsThe National Health Service and

Religion and Theology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Religion and Theology - Essay Example From this research it is clear that  one of the important aspects is to create a rapport with the needy person to enable them to open up. A pastoral care worker can only provide a remedy, if they have a perfect understanding of the problems or the pain the needy person is experiencing. A pastoral care provider must seek to know vital information regarding the problem the needy person is facing. This according to my inductors can only be achieved if the pastoral care worker creates an appropriate environment in which the needy person will cooperate exemplary. The success of pastoral care will rest hugely on the skills of the pastoral worker’s skills in manoeuvring different situations.This study outlines that  pastoral care is therefore as structured process, which requires the pastoral workers to employ their skills and Christian teachings to resolve the different situations. From my field experience, tutoring is an imperative stage, which provides the workers with initial skills to help them navigate some of the problems that may hinder the success of this form of counselling or care. Irrespective of the setting of the pastoral care, induction into the imperative aspects of practise is essential for any new pastoral worker.  For one to receive pastoral care, he/she must come to the church and register. This is the system the church has established to enable proper management of the program. In addition, the church leadership may also identify people who they feel need pastoral care despite not being members of the church.

Answer questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Answer questions - Assignment Example The general solutions that Swift recommends include; giving out ten repine, which is the charge of nursing a beggar’s child. The individuals he names as the donors of money are the cottagers, laborers, and four-fifths of the farmers. He also recommends that the underprivileged should be dressed skin that is artificial and the suitable person responsible for this plan is Dublin (Swift). The advantages Swift observes in his plan is that, it will reduce the number of papists, poor tenants will have something valuable of their own, country’s stock will be increased by fifty thousand per year, the food would likewise bring great custom to taverns, and lastly, it will be a great inducement to marriage (Swift). Others include the addition of thousand carcasses in the exportation of barreled beef and the enhancement of the art of making good bacon. The clues showing that Swift is not serious about his proposal is when he confesses that he is not ready in endeavoring to promote his plans and recommendations of assisting the underprivileged. He also claims that he has no children; hence, has no need to propose and request for a single penny, and his wife cannot bear children any longer

Histology Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Histology - Case Study Example This patient had shoulder pains and later was diagnosed with carcinoma of scapula and spine. It was found that the metastasis was from the lung. Identification of Metastatic tissues: The Fourier transform-infrared statistical models are able to identify the changes in structure of DNA at different levels of development of tumors. The DNA structures that are connected to the development of metastasis are usually foreordained in the progenitor cells much earlier in several steps of tumorigenesis. Biopsy and immunoglobulin methods used to diagnose cancer. People having metastasis in lungs may not show symptoms early but through medical examination and with using imaging techniques can be used to diagnose primary cancer that lead to the diagnosis of pulmonary metastasis. In case of slow developing primary tumor, metastasis can be noticed much early at the initial stages of the disease. The spread is usually through blood, lymphatic vessels or both. Identified cells in sample of lung tissue and their characteristics: The affected cells in the lung tissues are like the goblet cell, epithelial cells basal cells etc. The epithelia cells have a define shape. The following are the characteristics of the epithelia cells i.e. they can be polygonal or cuboidal or rectangular. Few are irregular. They are compactly arranged on a tiny membrane. They usually lack intercellular spaces. They have a lot of cytoplasm. They are uninucleate. They can undergo mitotic divisions. Goblet cells have the following characteristics i.e. they are cup shaped and produce mucous fluid composed of a protein called mucin that is bonded with an electrolyte solution. Identifying cells responsible for the tumor: Melanoma pigment is found on these epithelia cells once they are metastasized. Melanoma can be described as a cancer of cells that produce pigments and are found on the mucous membranes. Their presence is an indication cancer and should therefore

Nurture Your Childs Self-Esteem Essay Example for Free

Nurture Your Childs Self-Esteem Essay Kids start developing their sense of self as babies when they see themselves through their parents eyes. Your tone of voice, your body language, and your every expression are absorbed by your kids. Your words and actions as a parent affect their developing self-esteem more than anything else. Praising accomplishments, however small, will make them feel proud; letting kids do things independently will make them feel capable and strong. By contrast, belittling comments or comparing a child unfavorably with another will make kids feel worthless. Avoid making loaded statements or using words as weapons. Comments like What a stupid thing to do! or You act more like a baby than your little brother! cause damage just as physical blows do. Choose your words carefully and be compassionate. Let your kids know that everyone makes mistakes and that you still love them, even when you dont love their behavior. Catch Kids Being Good Have you ever stopped to think about how many times you react negatively to your kids in a given day? You may find yourself criticizing far more often than complimenting. How would you feel about a boss who treated you with that much negative guidance, even if it was well intentioned? The more effective approach is to catch kids doing something right: You made your bed without being asked — thats terrific! or I was watching you play with your sister and you were very patient. These statements will do more to encourage good behavior over the long run than repeated scoldings. Make a point of finding something to praise every day. Be generous with rewards — your love, hugs, and compliments can work wonders and are often reward enough. Soon you will find you are growing more of the behavior you would like to see. Set Limits and Be Consistent With Your Discipline Discipline is necessary in every household. The goal of discipline is to help kids choose acceptable behaviors and learn self-control. They may test the limits you establish for them, but they need those limits to grow into responsible adults. Establishing house rules helps kids understand your expectations and develop self-control. Some rules might include: no TV untilhomework is done, and no hitting, name-calling, or hurtful teasing allowed. You might want to have a system in place: one warning, followed by consequences such as a time out or loss of privileges. A common mistake parents make is failure to follow through with the consequences. You cant discipline kids for talking back one day and ignore it the next. Being consistent teaches what you expect. Make Time for Your Kids Its often difficult for parents and kids to get together for a family meal, let alone spend quality time together. But there is probably nothing kids would like more. Get up 10 minutes earlier in the morning so you can eat breakfast with your child or leave the dishes in the sink and take a walk after dinner. Kids who arent getting the attention they want from their parents often act out or misbehave because theyre sure to be noticed that way. Many parents find it rewarding to schedule together time with their kids. Create a special night each week to be together and let your kids help decide how to spend the time. Look for other ways to connect — put a note or something special in your kids lunchbox. Adolescents seem to need less undivided attention from their parents than younger kids. Because there are fewer windows of opportunity for parents and teens to get together, parents should do their best to be available when their teen does express a desire to talk or participate in family activities. Attending concerts, games, and other events with your teen communicates caring and lets you get to know more about your child and his or her friends in important ways. Dont feel guilty if youre a working parent. It is the many little things you do — making popcorn, playing cards, window shopping — that kids will remember. Be a Good Role Model Young kids learn a lot about how to act by watching their parents. The younger they are, the more cues they take from you. Before you lash out or blow your top in front of your child, think about this: is that how you want your child to behave when angry? Be aware that youre constantly being observed by your kids. Studies have shown that children who hit usually have a role model for aggression at home. Model the traits you wish to cultivate in your kids: respect, friendliness, honesty, kindness, tolerance. Exhibit unselfish behavior. Do things for other people without expecting a reward. Express thanks and offer compliments. Above all, treat your kids the way you expect other people to treat you. Make Communication a Priority You cant expect kids to do everything simply because you, as a parent, say so. They want and deserve explanations as much as adults do. If we dont take time to explain, kids will begin to wonder about our values and motives and whether they have any basis. Parents who reason with their kids allow them to understand and learn in a nonjudgmental way. Make your expectations clear. If there is a problem, describe it, express your feelings, and invite your child to work on a solution with you. Be sure to include consequences. Make suggestions and offer choices. Be open to your childs suggestions as well. Negotiate. Kids who participate in decisions are more motivated to carry them out. Be Flexible and Willing to Adjust Your Parenting Style If you frequently feel let down by your childs behavior, perhaps you have unrealistic expectations. Parents who think in shoulds (for example, My kid should be potty-trained by now) might find it helpful to read up on the matter or to talk to other parents or child development specialists. Kids environments have an impact on their behavior, so you may be able to modify that behavior by changing the environment. If you find yourself constantly saying no to your 2-year-old, look for ways to restructure your surroundings so that fewer things are off-limits. This will cause less frustration for both of you. As your child changes, youll gradually have to change your parenting style. Chances are, what works with your child now wont work as well in a year or two. Teens tend to look less to their parents and more to their peers for role models. But continue to provide guidance, encouragement, and appropriate discipline while allowing your teen to earn more independence. And seize every available moment to make a connection! Show That Your Love Is Unconditional As a parent, youre responsible for correcting and guiding your kids. But how you express your corrective guidance makes all the difference in how a child receives it. When you have to confront your child, avoid blaming, criticizing, or fault-finding, which undermine self-esteem and can lead to resentment. Instead, strive to nurture and encourage, even when disciplining your kids. Make sure they know that although you want and expect better next time, your love is there no matter what. Know Your Own Needs and Limitations as a Parent Face it — you are an imperfect parent. You have strengths and weaknesses as a family leader. Recognize your abilities — I am loving and dedicated. Vow to work on your weaknesses — I need to be more consistent with discipline. Try to have realistic expectations for yourself, your spouse, and your kids. You dont have to have all the answers — be forgiving of yourself. And try to make parenting a manageable job. Focus on the areas that need the most attention rather than trying to address everything all at once. Admit it when youre burned out. Take time out from parenting to do things that will make you happy as a person (or as a couple). Focusing on your needs does not make you selfish. It simply means you care about your own well-being, which is another important value to model for your children.

Biological Significance of BST2 Overexpression in OSCC

Biological Significance of BST2 Overexpression in OSCC Overexpression of BST2 is associated with nodal metastasis and poorer prognosis in oral cavity cancer ABSTRACT Objective: Bone marrow stromal cell antigen 2 (BST2) was one of the proteins which were found related to tumor metastasis in our previous proteomic study. Now we want to examine its clinical role on the oral cavity squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC). Study Design: Individual retrospective cohort study and basic research. Methods: Immunohistochemical analysis, Western blotting, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to demonstrate the expression levels of BST2 on 159 OSCC tumors. RNA interference was utilized for cell migration and proliferation study in vitro. Results: BST2 expression was significantly higher in OSCC cells of metastatic lymph nodes and primary tumor cells, compared to adjacent normal epithelia. Higher BST2 expression was associated with positive N stage, advanced overall stage, perineural invasion, and tumor depth (P = 0.049, 0.015, 0.021, and 0.010, respectively). OSCC patients with higher BST2 expression had poorer prognosis for disease-specific and disease-free survival (P = 0.009 and 0.001, respectively). Multivariate analyses also demonstrated that higher BST2 expression is an independent prognostic factor of disease-specific and disease-free survival (P = 0.047 and 0.013, respectively). In-vitro suppression of BST2 expression in OEC-M1 cells showed that BST2 contributes to tumor migration of OSCC cells. Conclusions: The findings in this study indicate that BST2 expression in OSCC tumors is an independent prognostic factor of patient survival and associated with tumor metastasis. Keywords: oral cancer; head and neck; BST2; metastasis; OSCC; tumor marker; squamous cell carcinoma. Level of evidence: NA Introduction Oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common head-and-neck cancer worldwide and remains a difficult malignancy to treat because of approximate 50% mortality rates in spite of recent advances in the contemporary management over the past three decades.1-4 Cervical lymph node dissemination has been long regarded as one of the major poor prognosticators in patient with OSCC and is a major obstacle to OSCC management. 5-8 Previously, some transcriptomic studies analyzing OSCC tumors have established the expression signatures of OSCC metastasis.9-13 On the other hand, our group also used a proteomic approach by isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation to identify proteins that are differentially expressed between laser capture microdissected primary and metastatic OSCC tumors and some potential markers of OSCC metastasis were therefore discovered.14 From the candidate proteins derived from by this approach, bone marrow stromal cell antigen 2 (BST2) was identifi ed as one of the potential molecules associated with OSCC metastasis and need further validation in the clinical scenario.14 The BST2 gene is located on chromosome 19p13.2 and codes for a 35kDa transmembrane glycoprotein consisting 180 amino acids. It is also known as the HM1.24 antigen, CD317, and tetherin.15,16 BST2 has been found to be expressed on mature B cells but not on other normal tissues of health individuals.15 The BST2 overexpression has been identified in several cancer types such as multiple myeloma, endometrial cancer, gastric cancer, and glioblastoma multiforme.17-23 Moreover, BST2 was discovered associated with the tumor progression and metastasis by previous findings from the pancreatic endocrine tumors with liver metastases and the breast cancers with bone metastasis.24,25 In vitro, overexpression of BST2 increased invasion, migration, cell proliferation and apoptosis evasion in breast cancer cells.26,27 Thus, based on the findings of these previous studies and our proteomic discovery, we also hypothesized that BST2 is overexpressed in OSCC and plays a specific role in tumor cell modulat ion. Accordingly, our study is designed to investigate the expression and the role of BST2 in the OSCC tumors. Immunohistochemical analysis and quantitative real-time PCR were used to demonstrate the expression levels of BST2 on OSCC tumors. We also employed RNAi techniques to suppress the BST2 expression to investigate the effects of BST2 modulation on the OSCC cell line in vitro. Materials and Methods Patient Characteristics and Clinical Specimens One houndred and thirty-eight male and 21 female were diagnosed as OSCC patients at the Chang Gung Memorial Hospital (Tao-Yuan, Taiwan) between 2002 and 2007 and enrolled in this study. Patient age at diagnosis ranged from 22.0 to 84.0 years (mean, 51.9 ±12.3). The associated subsites of the oral cavity were buccal mucosa (62 patients), gum (21), hard palate (5), lip (5), floor of the mouth (5), and tongue (61). Patients with at least one of the following conditions were considered ineligible: unresectable or inoperable cancer, other primary cancer (synchronous or metachronous), recurrent cancer, distant metastasis, prior history of malignancy, treatment with neoadjuvant therapy, medical contraindication for surgery, or individuals lost to follow-up. Lesions diagnosed as carcinoma in situ, verrucous carcinoma or a histologically basaloid subtype were also not included in the study. All patients provided informed consent prior to study participation, and the study was approved by th e Institutional Review Board of Chang Gung Memorial Hospital. Patients underwent standard preoperative work-ups according to institutional guidelines, including detailed medical history, complete physical examination, computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging scans of the head and neck, chest radiographs, bone scan, and abdominal ultrasound. Primary tumors were excised with adequate margins under intraoperative frozen section control. Surgical defects were immediately reconstructed via free flap or local flap by plastic surgeons, if necessary. Following surgical treatment, pathological TNM classification of all tumors was established according to the American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging Manual (2007). After discharge, all patients had regular follow-up visits every 2 months for the first year, every 3 months for the second year, and every 6 months thereafter.28-30 RNA Extraction and Quantitative Real-time RT-PCR Detection of BST2 According to the manufacturer’s protocol, total RNA of sixty paired OSCC tumor and adjacent normal tissues was extracted and purification by using RNAzol B reagent (Tel-Test, Friendwood, TX) and an RNeasy cleanup kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). 5ug of total RNA was used for first-strand cDNA synthesis and then adding to a reaction mixture comprising of commercially purchasable primers (BST2 Hs00171632_m1 and normalization control B2M, Hs00984230_m1 and ACTB, Hs99999903_m1 ; Assay-on-Demand, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix, and RNase-free water. 7900 HT Sequence Detection System was used for performing quantitative real-time RT-PCR and the result was analyzed with SDS version 2 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). All experiments were repeated in duplicate, and the mean fold-change of each sample was calculated. Western blot analysis Proteins were extracted from culture cells with RIPA buffer (50 mM Tris pH 8, 0.0150 mM NaCl, 2 mM EDTA, 1% Triton X-100, 0.1% SDS, 0.2 % Na-deoxylate, 1x protease cocktail (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), and the concentrations determined using the BCA protein assay kit (Perice Biotechnology) Samples were separated on 12% SDS gels, transferred to PVDF membranes (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, Buckinghamshire, UK), and probed using rabbit monoclonal anti-BST2 antibody (Epitomics, Burlingame, CA), mouse monoclonal beta-actin antibody (MAB1501, Chemicon, Billerica, MA), and mouse monoclonal GAPDH antibody (Novus, Littleton, CO). The beta-actin and GAPDH signals were used as the loading controls. Densitometer quantitation was also measured to demonstrate the relative fold differences of prtein levels. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) measurement ELISA kit for human BST2 (CUSABIO, Hubei, China) was used for determining the BST2 levels in the tested samples. Human recombinant BST2 was used as the standard. Briefly, 100 ÃŽ ¼l of samples or standard were added to a murine monoclonal antibody against BST2 coated microtiter plates and incubated for 2 h at room temperature. After the plates were washing with wash butter for three times, a biotin-conjugated polyclonal antibody was added and further incubated for 1 h at room temperature. The plates were washed three times again and 100 ÃŽ ¼l of horseradish peroxidase-avidin was added at room temperature for 1 h. After the plates were washed five times and 90 ÃŽ ¼l of tetramethylbenzidine was added to each well. The reaction was terminated by adding of 2 N sulfuric acid, and the optical density of each well was measured by a microplate reader set to 450 nm. Each experiment was performed in triplicate. Immunohistochemical Staining For immunohistochemistry, formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissues were cut into 4 à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ­m sections, deparaffinized, rehydrated, and prepared for antigen retrieval. Slides of consecutive sections were incubated with the appropriate antibodies: rabbit monoclonal anti-BST2 antibody (diluted 1:30, Epitomics, Burlingame, CA) at room temperature for 1 hour. After incubation, slides were washed three times with phosphate buffered saline, incubated with horseradish peroxidase polymer antibody (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) at room temperature for 10 min, and developed by the addition of 3,3’-Diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB) reagent (Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) as the chromogen and hematoxylin as the counterstain. A ScanScope CT automated slide-scanning system (Aperio Technologies, Vista, CA) was used for obtaining images of stained slides. Expression of BST2 was scored using a combined scoring method accounting for both percentage of stained cell s and staining intensity and.31-33 Strong to negative staining intensities were scored from 3 to 0. For each intensity score, cells staining at that specific level were visually estimated and calculated as a percentage. The resultant combined score was calculated as the sum of the intensity scores multiplied by the percentage of stained cells. All specimens were evaluated independently by our pathologists (Liang Y and Hseuh C) who had blinded to clinical origin of the specimen. Knockdown of BST2 Using RNA Interference (RNAi) SMARTpool small interfering RNAs (siRNA) were purchased from Thermo Scientific (Dharmacon, Lafayette, CO) .RNAi specifically targeting human BST2 (No. L-011817-00-0005, Dharmacon) and a scrambled control RNAi (No. D-001810-10-05, Dharmacon) were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Rockford, IL). RNAi (at a final concentration 400 nM) was mixed with Lipofectamine RNAiMAXTM (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and Opti-MEM medium (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) without serum, incubated for 20 min at room temperature, and then added to OEC-M1 cells that were seeded at a density of 1 Ãâ€" 105 cells per well in six-well plates. After incubation for 6 h at 37 °C, transfer fresh culture medium (RPMI medium containing 10% FBS) was added to each well. After transfection for 48 h, cells were harvested for analysis of cell migration, and invasive capacity. Cell Proliferation Assay Cell proliferation ability was determined using the methylthiazoltetrazolium (MTT) assay (Bionovas Biotechnology, Toronto, Canada). After transfection for 24 h, cells were seeded at a density of 5 x103cells/well in RPMI medium containing 10% FBS. At the end of another 48-hour incubation period, the medium was exchanged with MTT solution at a final concentration of 1 mg/mL, and cells placed in a culture incubator at 37oC for 1 h. After washing twice with PBS, cells were solubilized with 0.1 ml of DMSO at 37oC for 1 h. The converted dye was measured at 540 nm. Three independent experiments were performed in quadruplicate. The average value of the control experiment was taken as 100% proliferation, and used to calculate the percentage of cell proliferation for each treatment. Cell Migration Assay Cell migration was evaluated using a chemotaxis chamber (Corning, Lowell, MA) with a polycarbonate membrane (8-ÃŽ ¼m pore size) placed between the two chambers. Transfected OEC-M1 cells (1 Ãâ€" 105) in 200 ÃŽ ¼l of serum free culture medium were applied to the upper chamber and 600 ÃŽ ¼l of RPMI medium containing 10% FBS medium was added to the lower chamber. Chambers were incubated at 37 °C for 16 h, and then the membrane was fixed with methanol for 10 min and then stained with GIEMSA (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). Cotton swab was used for removing the cells on the upper surface of the filter, and the cells which migrated through the membrane were counted in eight different visual fields under a light microscope (magnification: 200x). Each migration assay was performed in triplicate during three independent experiments. Statistical Analysis All statistical data display as means  ± SD. The significance was examined by Wilcoxon test. The Wilcoxon signed ranks test was employed for comparison of the relative signal intensity of quantitative real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemical staining scores between paired tumor and pericancerous normal mucosa samples. All patients had regular follow-up evaluations at our department until Apr 2012 or death. Survival analysis was plotted using the Kaplan-Meier method, and differences evaluated using the log-rank test. The specific risk factors for disease-specific survival were analyzed with multivariate regression. Statistical analyses were performed using SAS software (version 9.1; SAS institute, Cary, NC). All P values were two-sided, and statistical significance accepted at P Results Overexpression of BST2 in tumor cells of OSCC tissues. Expression of BST2 was examined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR in 60 paired OSCC tumor and adjacent normal tissues. Transcripts for BST2 were significantly elevated in OSCC tumor specimens as compared with adjacent normal tissue (155  ± 205 vs. 38  ± 53, P PP= 0.533; Fig. 1B), indicating that BST2 is more highly expressed in tumor cells of metastatic lymph nodes and primary tumor cells and almost absent in normal oral epithelia. Association of BST2 expression with various clinicopathological manifestations Next, we evaluated the relationships between increased BST2 expression and various clinicopathological characteristics of OSCC patients (Table 1). Higher BST2 expression was significantly associated with higher pN status, advanced overall stage, positive perineural invasion, and greater tumor depth (P=0.049, 0.015, 0.021, and 0.010, respectively; Table 1). However, we observed no association between BST2 overexpression in OSCC tumors and patient age, sex, T stage, differentiation or bone invasion. Consistent with our hypothesis, BST2 overexpression was significantly (P=0.049) associated with nodal metastasis (pN status). Association of BST2 expression with overall survival (OS), disease-specific survival (DSS), and disease-free survival (DFS) Based on expression data obtained from IHC, patients were stratified into two groups (high vs. low expression using 160 out of 300 as the cut-off value), and the possible association of BST2 expression with patient OS evaluated. Survival analysis revealed that the five-year OS rates for patients stratified into high and low BST2 expression subgroups were 66.8% and 51.2%, respectively. These differences in OS were not significant, compared in the log-rank test (P=0.059; Figure 2A). However, the Kaplan-Meier plots evaluated 5-year DSS rates for patients stratified by high and low BST2 expression as 74.0% and 53.7%, respectively. These differences in DSS were statistically significant, as observed with the log-rank test (P= 0.009; Figure 2B). Moreover, five-year DFS rates for patients stratified based on high or low BST2 expression were also significantly different in the log-rank test (75.9% and 51.2%, respectively; P= 0.001) (Figure 2C). BST2 expression was additionally a significant predictor of DFS and DSS in univariate analysis with the Cox proportional regression model. To further ascertain whether BST2 expression can be applied as an independent predictor of patient survival, multivariate analysis was performed using age, gender, pT status, pN status, overall stage, perineural invasion, tumor differentiation and BST2 expression as parameters in the Cox proportional regression model. Our results indicated that pT status, pN status and BST2 expression are independent predictors of DSS (P= 0.017, 0.002, and 0.047, respectively; Table 2). Similarly, we also found that pT status, pN status and BST2 expression are independent predictors of DFS (P= 0.014, BST2 Promotes OSCC Cell Migration In Vitro To evaluate the biological significance of BST2 overexpression in OSCC using an in vitro system, endogenous expression of BST2 in OSCC cells was knocked down using gene specific RNAi. The effects of RNAi were determined by the ELISA method in the supernatants of OEC-M1 cells transfected with either BST2-specific RNAi (si-BST2) or a scrambled sequence control RNAi. As shown in Supplementary Figure 2A, the levels of endogenous BST2 was significantly reduced (P=0.003; Supplementary Figure 2A) in si-BST2–transfected cells as compared with cells transfected with the control RNAi. Control and si-BST2–transfected cells were further analyzed for cell proliferation and migration. As shown in Supplementary Figure 2B, the cell proliferation ability in OEC-M1 cells was not significantly decreased in the si-BST2–transfected cells compared to the control RNAi transfected cells (P =0.435; Supplementary Fig 2B). However, the capability of OEC-M1 cell migration attenuated by addi tion of si-BST2 (70.2% reduction, P = 0.001; Supplementary Figure 2C). Collectively, these findings indicated that overexpression of BST2 in vitro can mediate cell migration in OSCC cells.

Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) History and

Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) History and PART 2 EFFICIENCY MARKET HYPOTHESIS Introduction In order to better understand the origin and the idea behind the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH), an overview of the EMH, The Random Walk Model, different degrees of information efficiency and the implications of efficient markets for investors are studied in the paper. Efficient Market Hypothesis The efficiency concept is one of the most essential concepts for investment management and analysis. Market efficiency basically revolves around three related assumptions on proper- allocation efficiency, informational efficiency and operational efficiency. Efficiency in allocation is a vital characteristic of a strong market wherein the allocation of capital is done in a proper way so that it benefits all the participants and helps in promotion of economic growth and status. Efficiency in operation is another crucial parameter which is used commonly by economists to determine and analyzes how resources are utilized in the market to benefit operational activities in the market and industry. Efficiency in information helps to determine the actual market value of shares based on its intrinsic value. The Information efficiency signifies that reflection on all available information pertaining to the security’s price must be used to determine the security’s observed market price. (Hossain,Rahman, 2006) The introduction to the idea of market efficiency was given by Bachelier (1900) and later it was termed as efficient market by Fama (1965) Fama (1970) further went on to state the vital conditions/ assumptions for maintaining efficiency: Provision of no transactional costs during the trading of securities; All information is freely available to all the participants in the market, and Agreement of all of them on the implications of the information relating to the current price and future distribution of prices of each security He identified three forms of informational efficiency, which are the weak form(underdeveloped), the semi-strong form(developing) and the strong form efficiency(developed). Forms of Market Efficiency Weak-Form Efficiency Weak form efficiency market implies that it is an efficient market which reflects all its market information accurately and does not provide profit for the investor based on past records or rates. This past records stands invalid for the market. Fama (1970) stipulates in his theory that no investor can avail greater returns when the market is weak-form efficient. Example African economy has a weak efficiency market wherein the means to attain gains on investment is narrow based on past investment experience. Example trading test, auto correlation test and run test. Semi-Strong Form Efficiency Semi Strong Form Efficiency market indicates that market is efficient and it reflects all public information. It says that the stocks are absorbant of all new information and incorporates it by adjusting to it. It is partly like the weak form efficiency market wherein the stocks rate are based upon new information that is released after the stocks are bought. So making it difficult for the market to be predictable. Fama (1970) explains the semi-strong form efficient market as the one where share price not only reflect on all information regarding its past and historic prices, but also includes additional public information which is later on integrated with the shared price and adjusted to reveal the true share value. This also implies that an investor will not be able to use the public information for the generation of gains in the evolving stock market. Event tests and time series/ regression tests are some examples. Strong Form Efficiency The Strong form efficient market relies on both public as well as private information wherein the stock prices are based and reflected upon. So an average investor cannot make much profit more than others also when he is given the new information. It incorporates both the weak form and semi strong form of market efficiency. Private information concerns the information that is not yet published or known only to the security analysts/ fund managers. The new public and private information is then incorporated into the share price to represent its true share value. This makes it even more difficult for the investor to assess share values. Examples are insiders, exchange specialists, institutional money managers and analysts who have access to new information. Fundamental analysis and technical analysis This analysis makes use of analysing and evaluating the financial statements, health of the business, efficiency of the management and their competitive advantages, while also examining the competition in the market. When applied on forex and futures market it uses production, interest rates, earnings, GDP, employment, manufacturing, housing and management analysis. While technical analysis predicts the future of market based on past prices, volume and market information. This is useful for behaviour economics and quantitative analysis. Both these methods of analysis contradict the premise and study made on efficiency market theory which states that study of market with accuracy cannot be determined by any method. Implications of EMH Market efficiency has some prominent implications concerned with both authorities and investors, which are mentioned below: When a market is efficient they must 1. Not worry about analysis on their investments, but concentrate rather on developing a diversified portfolio to get rewarded for their investments. 2. Adopt to the policy of buy and hold after establishing their portfolios as making frequent changing by shifting from one securities group to another would raise for them unwarranted transaction costs. Other implications are based on the fact that changes in price are random and cannot be predicted, investors are smart enough to not get fooled by the financial reports circulated and lastly the timing of security issues are not crucial. Investors must pay more attention to construct and hold diversified and efficient portfolios rather than taking to fundamental and technical analysis. This approach will definitely benefit them in the long run. Empirical Evidences for anomalies The empirical evidence lists some of the significant ‘anomalies which contradict the efficient market theory as listed below: The January Effect It is often noticed that the stock returns raise high abnormally in the first week of January which is defined as the January effect wherein most of the investors opt to sell some of the stocks befor the year end and later claim for a capital loss to evade tax and then go on to make their reinvestments later on. (Rozeff and Kinney, 1976) Size Effect The Size Effect is the small firm’s tendency, which holds a small capital market, to outweigh and surpass the market of larger companies and rise as an underdog over the long term. (Banz, 1981) and (Reinganum, 1981) Weekend Effect This is a notable phenomenon wherein the stock returns are observed to be comparatively lower on Mondays as against those on the preceding Fridays. ( French, 1890).. Value Effect The value effect related to the nature of stocks that hold low cost, earnings ratio to outdo other alternative portfolios of stocks which have higher cost, earnings ratio. Empirical Evidences from Developing Countries Despite huge empirical studies conducted in order to test and validate the Efficient Market Hypothesis in developed countries which witness a flourishing financial market, the pertinent studies on weak efficiency markets are limited in countries like Africa. Most developing and underdeveloped countries suffer a setback due to the problem of thin trading (Mlambo and Biekpe, 2005). Fisher (1966) who first identified this bias due to thin trading on his observation on correlation of return index, stated that the security’s price that are recorded are not similar to their respective underlying values based on theory as when a share trade fails, the recorded price remains the closing price as per the last share trade. It is also stressed that reasons like transactional costs, delay in operations and illiquidity of the market are crucial in determining a concrete statistical evaluation of the study. Bibliography Cohen, W. W., 1996. Learning trees and rules with set valued features. s.l.:s.n.vol1. Fama, E., 1970. Efficient Capital markets: A review of theory and empirical work. 1ed. s.l,American Economic Review. Fisher, R. A., 1966. The design of experiments. 8ed. New York: Hafner publishing. Mikhail, M. W. R., 2004. Do security analysts exhibit persistent Differences in Stock picking ability. s.l.Journal of financial economics. Reiter, S. W. P. F., n.d. Scientific conversations in financial economics. Burlington: Ashgate publishing company.

God and Man in Homer’s Iliad, Virgil’s Aeneid, and Dante’s Inferno Essa

God and Man in Homer’s Iliad, Virgil’s Aeneid, and Dante’s Inferno The truest of man’s goals is to create art. Art is a by-product of the gift of man over the animals, creativity. Truly, creativity is a replication of God in man and a very possible interpretation of the Genesis 1:27 phrase â€Å"in his own image,† along with others—the possession of an immortal soul or the ability to speak. And creativity’s ultimate end product is art. And art more often than not in the history of man has led man to pay homage to his creator. Three of the classic literary artistic works of mankind, Homer’s Iliad, Virgil’s Aeneid, and Dante’s Inferno, feature—if not focus—on the deity or deities of the respective authors and their relation to the characters of the story in the interaction between the two and the worship practices of the characters. Although religion in general can and does serve simply as background material in a work, in most if not all literary works the inclusion of a divine being as a character is so that he or she can interact with the other, non-divine, characters. A story where Apollo is present but unimportant is not traditional at all (that is to say, it is foreseeably possible, but difficult and therefore not likely, especially in a non-modern work). In the Iliad, Homer presents some of the Greek pantheon—Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Thetis, et al—and their purpose is interaction with the human characters—Achilles, Hector, and others—but this is expected and obvious to any reader. The notability of the relations is the ease of them. Thetis is the mother of Achilles, she a god, he mortal. Athena is on the side of Achilles, and fools Hector in he and Achilles’ final battle (Il. 22). But these are common in the world of the Iliad;... ...ity. New York: Columbia UP, 1974. Grayson, Cecil, ed. The World of Dante. London: Oxford, 1982. Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. 6th ed. Vol. 1. Ed. Maynard Mack, Bernard M. W. Knox, John C. McGalliard, P. M. Pasinetti, Howard E. Hugo, Patricia Meyer Spacks, Renà © Wellek, Kenneth Douglas, Sarah Lawall. New York: Norton, 1992. 98-208. Jebb, R. C. Homer: An Introduction to the Iliad and the Odyssey. Port Washington, Slatkin, Laura M. The Power of Thetis. Berkeley: U of California P, 1995. Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. 6th ed. Vol. 1. Ed. Maynard Mack, Bernard M. W. Knox, John C. McGalliard, P. M. Pasinetti, Howard E. Hugo, Patricia Meyer Spacks, Renà © Wellek, Kenneth Douglas, Sarah Lawall. New York: Norton, 1992. 98-208. NY: Kennikat Press, 1969.

Classification Essay - Weight Lifters :: Classification Essays Gym Working Out

Classification Essay - Weight Lifters    Entertainment has been an established part of the American culture almost since its founding. The types of entertainment that most Americans enjoy in today's world are going to the movies, going out to eat, and exercising. Different forms of exercise vary from running and playing sports to weight lifting. Those who enjoy weight lifting can choose to do so in the privacy of their home, in a community center like the YMCA, or in a health club. At a health club one can expect to find a wide variety of people; however, some of these people add to the downside of working out at a local health club because they can be annoying and obnoxious. Three types of these annoying, obnoxious people found at the weight room of a local health club are the show-off, the know-it-all, and the wanderer; these types can be identified by their physical appearance, their social behavior, and their attitude. The first type, the show-off, is known by his flashy appearance, his misanthropic social skills, and his arrogant attitude. The show-off is a single male in his twenties who drives a European luxury car; he always comes to the gym wearing a tank top to display his deep tan and a pair of black and green spandex shorts. He is heavily built and all his muscles are well defined. But he is a man with poor social skills; he seldom talks to another soul and always works out by himself. He frequently ignores the greetings and good-byes of the health club employees; when he does answer a friendly "Hi, how is it going" or a "See you later," he does so in a deep, blunt, morbid tone of voice. He also likes to emphasize how strong and masculine he is by working out at the very front and center of the weight room, where everyone can see him. He refuses requests for help from others like a cheerleader refusing to go on a date with an pimply, nerdy classmate. Most people who work out at health clubs are glad to do without the show-off. The second type is the know-it-all; he is identified by his commonplace appearance, moderately developed social skills, and commanding attitude.

KILLER ANGELS :: essays research papers

This books message was that the South was not an evil empire history made it out to be. The book portraits slavery as the major reason the civil war was started. The South was against freeing the slaves, and the North fought for the latter. The book also stated that the south was dependent on the slaves and fought to keep their society enact. Killer Angels was informative, very fascinating, and I disliked it. I learned many things from it. I learned from the book that the Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point of the Civil War. Before the battle of Gettysburg the South had won most major battles. Gettysburg is defined as a major victory in the war for the North. The winning of this battle gave the North momentum as defined in the book resulting in the North winning virtually every battle for the next two years. The Battle of Gettysburg greatly depleted ammunition and soldiers from both armies; because of the North’s industrialization they were able to replace men and ammunition faster than the South giving them a grater advantage. The book portrayed Confederate General Robert E. Lee as an intellectual who’s opinion of slavery was not partisan or predigest, but he believed that in the present state of their development they were not yet able to coexist equally or civilized with Anglo America. The author focuses on General Lee. and whether or not his decision to leave the U.S. military and join the Confederate Army was based upon selfish loyalty to a state flag†. And the author comes to the conclusion that Lee was a hero of great character who stood by what he believed in. The book also portrayed General Lee narcissistically. His over confidence in his army’s past victory’s compelled him to order his army to charge the North’s army from and unfortified position, up a hill in order to take control of a fortified position held by the North. And after failing numerous times he continued to do so. He even ordered his armory to charge over more than a mile of open field, resulting in the systematic bombardment of his troops; by the time the South’s army reached the North’s position their numbers were minute compared to the opposing army’s. This book focused more on details and moods, save the tactics that were used in the early battle.

Concept of Management Audit

The Concept of Management Audit The management audit is more recent concept. It focuses on results, evaluating the effectiveness and suitability of controls by challenging underlying rules, procedures and methods. Management audits, which are generally performed internally, are compliance audits plus cause-and-effect analysis. Management audit requires some additional work. It is a systematic technique of evaluating the operation and effectiveness of the management of a firm.This audit is conducted by an independent auditor or auditing firm, who are experts in auditing. This is done yearly or periodically. The audit team collects as many facts and information from office records and personal interviews with the personnel of the firm. The team also collects data through questionnaires distributed among the personnel and customers and/or clients of the firm. The team shall submit recommendations to the management for future actions.Management may use these recommendations for controlli ng the performance and accomplishments of the firm. According to Ferlyn L. Suvillaga â€Å"it is a systematic assessment of methods and policies of an organization’s management in the administration and the use of resources and other more. † From the response of Loria Lyn M. Fernandez â€Å"management audit is audit itself but instead of in accounts, it deals with the management. As explained by Rancy Mendoza â€Å"it is the process of determining the individual or group performance in an organization or business. † Based on the statement of Ivey Anne Muncada â€Å"it is a systematic assessment of company’s organizational policies and administration. † After reading a very reliable references, the researcher finally realized that management audit is very important, whether to organization, company or firm. It also requires some additional work because without work we cannot perform such management audit.

Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics

————————————————- Politics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the political magazine, see  The Politic. For other uses, see  Politics (disambiguation). Politics  (from  Greek  politikos  Ã¢â‚¬Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†) is the  art  or  science  of influencing people on a civic, or individual level, when there are more than 2 people involved. Modern political discourse focuses on democracy and the relationship between people and politics. It is thought of as the way we â€Å"choose government officials and make decisions about public policy†. [1] * | ———————————————— [edit]Etymology European Parliament The word  politics  comes from the  Greek  word   (politika), modeled on  Aristotle's â€Å"affairs of the city†, the name of his book on governing and governments, which was rendered in English in the mid-15th century as Latinized â€Å"Polettiques†. [2]  Thus it became â€Å"politics† in  Middle English  c. 1520s (see the  Concise Oxford Dictionary). The singular  politic  first attested in English 1430 and comes from  Middle French  politique, in turn from  Latin  politicus,[3]  which is the  latinisation  of the Greek politikos), meaning amongst others â€Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†, â€Å"civil†, â€Å"civic†, â€Å"belonging to the state†,[4]  in turn from (polites), â€Å"citizen†[5]  and that from (polis), â€Å"city†. [6] ————————————————- [edit]History The history of politics is reflected in the origin and development, and economics of the institutions of  go vernment. [edit]The state Main article:  State (polity) Sun Tzu The origin of the  state  is to be found in the development of the  art of warfare.Historically speaking, all political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. [7] Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that ofkingship  stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the â€Å"divine right of kings†. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria[8]  to the 21st Century AD British Monarchy.Kingship becomes an institution through heredity. The king often, even in  absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a  Council  without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors, and others outside the monarchy negotiated for p ower,  constitutional monarchies  emerged, which may be considered the germ of  constitutional government. [citation needed]  Long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:[citation needed] 1.Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. 2. Preserving the traditions of the social order. 3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. 4. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than a single individual such as the king. The greatest of the king's subordinates, the  earls,  archdukes  and  dukes  in England and Scotland, the  dukes  and  counts  in the Continent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for plunder but an established kingdom exacts  tribute.One of the functions of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. Another is the satisfaction of  military service  a nd the establishment of  lordships  by the king to satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers. [9] [edit]The state and property Property  is the right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed to public trust.Nevertheless, a right is really an institution brought around by public trust, past, present or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the State brought about the final stage in the evolution of property from wildlife to husbandry. In the presence of the State, man can hold landed property. The State began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it came  inheritance.With landed property came ren t and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern times, the â€Å"lord of the land† of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, then there is of course no evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in population benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out of an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit.Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both the State – the State would use the instrument of  confiscation  for the first time to satisfy a debt – and the Church – the Church succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land – were allied against the village community to displace the small landlord and they were successful to the extent that today, the village has become the ideal of the  individualist, a place in which every man â€Å"does what he wills with his own. † The State has been the most important factor in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or private. 10] [edit]The state and the justice system As a primarily military institution, the State is concerned with the  allegiance  of its subjects viewing disloyalty and  espionage  as well as other sorts of  conspiracies  as detrimental to its national security. Thus arises the law of  treason. Criminal acts in general, breaking the peace and treason make up the whole, or at least part of  criminal law  enforced by the State as distinguished from  the law enforced by private individuals or by the state on behalf of private individuals.State justice has taken the place of clan, feudal, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity. One very striking evidence of the superiority of the royal courts over the feudal and popular courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until comparatively late in history, the royal courts alone kept written records of their proceedings. The  trial by jury  was adopted by the Royal Courts, securing it's popularity and making it a bulwark of liberty.By the time of the  Protestant Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the business of administering justice. [11] [edit]The state The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies. That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the  Jewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in the  Gentile  cities of the West. This tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the patriarchal stage of society, it was  custom  or  observance  sanctioned by the approval and practice of ancestors. citation needed] The state of affairs wh ich existed in the 10th century, when every town had its own laws and nations like France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by three great agencies that helped to create the modern system of law and legislation:[citation needed] 1. Records:  From the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what are called folk-laws and they appear exactly at the time when the patriarchal is becoming the State.They are due almost universally to one cause: the desire of the king to know the custom of his subjects. These are not legislation in the sense of law-making but statements or declarations of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point to the exact text and show what it says. Nevertheless, the written text can change by addition with every new edition. 2.Law Courts:  By taking some general rule which seemed to be common to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English common law was modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later is because the State in those countries did not get hold of the administration of justice when England did. One of the shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every ase toquestions of fact. At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact; and being a purely local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to pass: the province of the judge and the province of the jury. 3. Fictions:  Records and Law Courts were valuable in helping the people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and imperfect. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known fact that people will accept a cha nge in the form of a fiction while they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the open.British parliament Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When progress and development is rapid, the faster method of  political representation  is adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce sprang  Parliament  all over Europe around the end of the 12th century but not entirely representative or homogeneous for the nobility and the clergy.The clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation; they adopted the rule of  celibacy  and cut themselves from domestic life; they refused to plead in a secular court; they refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had a lready paid it to the  Pope. Since the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to Parliament.The Church did not like it but in most cases they had to come. [citation needed] The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it was not a popular institution mainly because it meant  taxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the Crown were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their existence and the best proof of this assertion lies in the fact that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist.The notion that parliaments were the result of a democratic movement cannot be supported by historical facts. Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely concerned with money; representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a privilege. It is not uncommon that a n institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were asked to contribute with large sums of money began to  petition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would turn into bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in exchange for money.However, there were two kinds of petitions, one private and the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted or  legislation  originated. The king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial integrity but not until these royal enactments were combined with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always been the basis of all successful legislation: public custom is adopted and enforced by the State. citation needed] In the early days of political representation, the  majority  did not necessarily carry the day and there was very little need for contested  elections  but by the beginning of the 15th century, a seat in Parliam ent was something to be cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the adoption of the majority principle is also responsible for another institution of modern times: the  party system.The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political candidates against each other for the vote of an electorate; its advantage being equal representation interesting a large number of people in politics; it provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet for the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a consistent policy in government. citation needed] These three institutions: political representation, majority rule and the party system are the basic components of modern political machinery; they are applicable to both central and local governments and are becoming by their adaptability ends in th emselves rather than a machinery to achieve some purpose. [12] [edit]The state and the executive system The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government.In the enactment and enforcement of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easy to see the advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic, religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by government. [citation needed] The  German Chancellery(Bundeskanzleramt) in  Berlin Originally, the state was a military institution. For many years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was basically rule by force over a larger mass of people.Slowly, however, the people gained political representation for none can really be said to be a member of the State without the right of having a voice in the direction o f policy making. One of the basic functions of the State in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order; it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops means ofcommunication. Historically, the â€Å"king's highway† was laid down and maintained for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive to  commerce.In almost all countries, the State maintains the control of the means of communication and special freedoms such as those delineated in the  First Amendment to the United States Constitution  are rather limited. The State's original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to  police  administration which is a branch of the dispensation of  Justice  but on its preventive side, police jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work.In thecurfew, the State shows early in history the import ance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising of  revenue. It was then useful to the State to establish a  standard  of  weights and measures  so that value could be generally accepted and finally the State acquired a  monopoly  of  coinage. The regulation of labor by the State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century, when  the Black Plague  killed around half of the European population. citation needed] The invariable policy of the State has always been to break down all intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the individual. This was the policy until  Adam Smith's  The Wealth of Nations  was published promoting a strong public reaction against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the issue of the poor or the State relief of the  indigent. The State, of course, did not create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with t s uch as the village, the church and the  guilds, it practically assumed full responsibility for the poor without exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Report of 1834 showed that  communism  was widespread in the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as the  colonies  of the  British Empire, the State has refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards State socialism. citation needed] Taking into account the arguably significant powers of the State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such as an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke general State aid. [citation needed] Political representation has helped to shape State administration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity popular.There are no hard and fast rules to limit Stat e administration but it is a fallacy to believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even where â€Å"universal suffrage† prevails, the fact remains that an extension of State administration means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is necessarily good.Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals the fallacy that State officials must necessarily prove more effective in their action than  private enterprise. Herein lies the basic difference between  Public  and  Business Administration; the first deals with the  public weal  while the second deals basically in  profit  but both require a great deal of  education  and  ethical conduct  to avoid the mishaps inherent in the relationship not only relating to  business  and  labour  but also the State and the people administrating its  government. 13] [edit]The varieties of political experience The swearing of the oath of ratification of the treaty of Munster in 1648  (1648) by  Gerard ter Borch. According to Aristotle, States are classified into  monarchies,  aristocracies,  timocracies,  democracies,  oligarchies, and  tyrannies. Due to an increase in knowledge of the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned. Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the perfect form under all circumstances, for all people and in all ways.As an institution created by the human nature togovern society, it is vulnerable to  abuse by people for their own gain, no matter what form of government a state utillises, thus posing that there is no ‘best' form of government. All States are varieties of a single type, the sovereign State. All the  Great Powers  of the modern world rule on the principle of  sovereignty. Sovereign power may be vested on an individual as in an  autocratic government  or it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government.Constitutions  are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the Legislative branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. Nevertheless, the written constitution is essential.England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the  Civil War  but after the  Restoration  abandoned them to be taken up later by the  American Colonies  after their  ema ncipation  and then  France  after the  Revolution  and the rest of Europe including the European colonies. [citation needed] There are two forms of government, one a strong central government as in France and the other a local government such as the ancient divisions in England that is comparatively weaker but less bureaucratic.These two forms helped to shape the  federal government, first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1870 and in the 20th century,  Australia. The Federal States introduced the new principle of agreement or  contract. Compared to a  federation, a  confederation's singular weakness is that it lacks  judicial power. [citation needed]  In the  American Civil War, the contention of the Confederate States that a State could  secede  from the Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary branches. citation needed] According to professor  A. V. Dicey  in  An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential features of a federal constitution are: a) A written supreme constitution in order to prevent disputes between the jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities; b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining independent of both the executive and legislative branches. 14] [edit]Political party Main article:  political party A  political party  is a  political organization  that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within  government, usually by participating in  electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed  ideology  or vision bolstered by a written  platform  with specific goals, forming a  coalition  among disparate interests . [citation needed] [edit]World politics The  United Nations  building in  New York CityThe 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the rise and fall of the  Third Reich  but also the rise and fall of  communism. The development of the  Atomic bomb  gave the United States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan in  World War II. Later, the development of the  Hydrogen bombbecame the ultimate weapon of mass destruction. The  United Nations  has served as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war. â€Å"The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends. [15]  Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, â€Å"nuclear blackmail† comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national sovereignty. [16]  On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during th e October  Cuban missile crisis  from the implementation of  U. S. vs  U. S. S. R. nuclear blackmail policy. ————————————————- [edit]As an academic disciplinePolitical science, the study of politics, examines the acquisition and application of  power. [17]  Political scientist  Harold Lasswell  defined politics as â€Å"who gets what, when, and how†. [18]  Related areas of study include  political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour,  political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, and  public administration, which examines the practices of governance. citation needed]  The philosopher  Charles Blattberg, who has defined politics as â€Å"responding to conflict with dialogue,† offers an acco unt which distinguishes political philosophies from political ideologies. [19] The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States was the chair of history and political science at  Columbia University, first occupied by Prussian emigre  Francis Lieber  in 1857. [20] ————————————————- [edit]SpectraPolitical views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the Inglehart–Welzel Cultural Map of the World based on the  World Values Survey. Main article:  Political spectrum Several different  political spectrums  have been proposed. [edit]Left-right politics Main article:  Left–right politics Recently in history, political analysts and politicians divide politics into  left wing  and  right wing  politics, often also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and left.This classificat ion is comparatively recent (it was not used by  Aristotle  or  Hobbes, for instance), and dates from theFrench Revolution  era, when those members of the  National Assembly  who supported the  republic, the common people and a  secular society  sat on the left and supporters of the  monarchy,  aristocratic  privilege and the Church sat on the right. [21] The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of the  Communist Manifesto  by  Karl Marx  and  Frederick Engels  in 1848.The  Manifesto  suggested a course of action for a  proletarian  revolution to overthrow thebourgeois  society and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to a  classless  and  stateless  society. [citation needed] The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often values  tradition  and  social stratification  while the left wing often values  reform  and  egalitarianism, with the center seeking a balance between the two such as with  social democracy  or  regulated capitalism. 22] According to  Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian. [23] Some ideologies, notably  Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K.Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, â€Å"In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles. â€Å"[24]  Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include  Fascist  Terza Posizioneeconomic politics in Italy,  Gaullism  in France,  Peronism  in Argentina, and  National Action Politics  in Mexico. [citation needed] [edit]Authoritarian-libertarian politics Authoritarianism  and  libertarianism  refer to the amount of individual  freedom  each person possesses in that society relative to the state.One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where â€Å"individual  rights  and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities†,[25]  while libertarians generally oppose the  state  and hold theindividual  as  sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are  anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, of  Political parties  and of  other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, theoretically,  totalitarians  who support state control over all aspects of  society. citation nee ded] For instance,  classical liberalism  (also known as  laissez-faire  liberalism,[26]  or, in much of the world, simply  liberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and  limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual  property rights,  free markets,  natural rights, the protection of  civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of  John Locke,  Adam Smith,  David Hume,  David Ricardo,  Voltaire,  Montesquieu  and others.According to the libertarian  Institute for Humane Studies, â€Å"the libertarian, or ‘classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by ‘as much liberty as possible' and ‘as little government as necessary. ‘†[27]  For anarchist political philosopher  L. Susan Brown  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Liberalism and  anarchism   are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual  freedom  yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations. [28] ————————————————- [edit]Political corruption Main article:  Political corruption â€Å"| Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it. | †|   | —  William Pitt the Elder[29]| | Political corruption  is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as  repression  of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption.Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties. [citation needed] Forms of corruption vary, but include  bribery,  extortion,  cronyism,  nepotism,  patronage,  graft, and  embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate  criminal enterprise  such as  drug trafficking,  money laundering, and  trafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. citation needed]  The activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. [citation needed] Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. [30]  A state of unrestrained